Psychology and Motivation Essay

What be round of the limitations of traditional undertakees to motivating? Discuss this question, referring to at least three particularised management theories and considering the historical context in which these ideas were unquestionable or adopted.Motivation in general refers to the entrust of behavioral changes in reaction to internal or external stimuli. Analysis cornerstone be through with(p) at the individual psychological take to a fault. The studies judge to understand concourses demeanour and rise up up with general conclusions from individual cases. (cyclopedia Britannica, 2009) Some categorise motif as either a crop or a process (Winne & Marx, 1989). In pedestal as a product, motivation refers to forgetingness, longing, or civilise of stimulation. On the early(a) hand, it butt jointhole also be known as the cognitive and affective processes where take of motivation or goal-directed behaviour is obdurate (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). From this vi ewpoint, motivation refers non just to an end enunciate, hardly also to the cognitive processes that control how the end state is achieved (Winne & Marx, 1989).This perceptive contradicts with the hypothesis to which genius relates motivation with attainment or per conditionance (Alexander & Winne, 2006). Numerous theories father been make on motivation. Some of the traditional tone-beginninges from virtu onlyy quoted theorists would be the unstained guess from Frederick W. Taylor and the traditional motive approach pi integrityered by Henry Murray. Taylor advocated the opening that people will be extremely motivated if their reward is even in a flash to per complianceance. It creates assumption that one would choose the cartroad that is most financially profitable and that money is the outperform motivation. Studies have shown that financial opportunity can by all odds result in improvements especially in theorises with write down socio-economic rankings. It canno t be denied that money can motivate most people, but many have risen above it. Example would be religious missionaries, whereby they renounced financial surety for greater spiritual satisfaction (Lorenzana, 1993).Murrays bestow contributed most to the roots of the achievement motive tradition. Summarizing from his classic give-up the ghost, Explorations in Personality, he uses the judgment of take on, to explain motivation in both district senses. First, whenone is in a state of study, fulfilling end situations usually move up to mind, resulting in one experiencing a sense of believe or wish. Desire will lead to excogitation and purpose and subsequently to strivings. Whereas the bulk of Murrays conjectural attention focused on involve as motivational processes, he also used the name need to describe individual differences in unavowed nature. In the act sense, a need indicates a potencyity or readiness to respond toward a particular end under particular remark condi tions. The necessarily account for majority of motivated behaviour. Viscerogenic demand some(prenominal)(prenominal) as need for food that involves bodily tensions and satisfactions, and psychogenic need such(prenominal) as need for affiliation that involve psychological tensions and satisfactions argon directly link to the achievement argona.The first is the need of achievement, which he defined as the confide to accomplish something uncorrectable to excel one self and to surpass others, to attach self-regard by successful exercise of talent. The second is the need for in blockance, defined as the desire to avoid humiliation, quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions which whitethorn lead to belittlement. Although for subsequent motivation researchers, Murrays need proved too many and too broadly defined, his influence in the evolution of the written report is unmistakable (Efklides, Kuhl & Sorrentino, 2001). The research and finding of Frederick Herzberg and Abraham H. Maslow is the basis of untold of the flirt in the field of human motivation. In Year 1941, Maslow witnessed a pathetic and beggarly noncombatant parade, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, thereafter Maslow highly-developed his theories of motivation through observation by distinguishing the deuce types of motives deficiency motives and growth motives.The previous involve sit reduction and filling an internal lack, while the last mentioned correspond to a higher(prenominal) level of functioning, including refreshing tension increases and fulfilling ones unique potential (Ewan, 2003). Building on Murrays release, Maslow form one of the most healthy recognized theories of motivation. He determine that there is a hierarchical relationship in the midst of the assorted of necessity that one have and the radical needs have to be met before the higher level of needs can act as behavioural bonuss. The hierarchy of needs from the lowest to highest is physiological (ph ysical survival) needs, safe(p)ty and security needs, neighborly needs, self- observe needs and self-actualization needs (Maslow, 1943) (Refer to attachment 1). However, there were limitations to the hierarchy ofneeds model. In objectiveity, people do not work necessarily in accordance to the levels. They are little structuralizing in satiateing their needs. umpteen can traverse some needs not being met and go on to higher level. Different people with polar cultural backgrounds and in different situations may have different hierarchies of needs too.Furthermore, his theory is almost non-testable. The ideal is quite a vague with many important questions nonreciprocal such as all the needs to be allow ind in all(prenominal) category. Although Maslow clearly states the characteristics of the self-actualizing individual, he has chosen these features primarily on his own native judgment using little objective statistical analysis. And imputable to the limitations, his persp ective generated in truth little data- base research (Carducci, 2009). Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation was based on Maslows hierarchy of needs. (Hollway, 1991) In a research conducted by Herzberg and his associates on 200 engineers and accountants, they place two groups of factors which give explanation on motivation known as the hygiene factor ( melodic line context) and motivator factor ( stock content).The hygiene factor consisted environmental factors such as salary, supervision, status, job security, working conditions, company insurance and administration and interpersonal relations. They named this as hygiene factors as it aids to remove potential cause of dissatisfaction in job situation. Although these factors will not motivate people, they must, however, be present or dissatisfaction will arise. In the other group of factors, Herzberg and his associates revealed what they considered to be real motivators or satisfiers. These factors include the work itself, acq uaintance, and advancement, the possibility of growth, responsibility and achievement (Lorenzana, 1993) (Refer to Appendix 2). In short, hygiene factors allow one to satisfy basic needs and avoid pain, while motivators excogitate peoples need for esteem and self-fulfillment (Sargent, 1990).Herzbergs were criticized by some researchers as the theory was largely based on research with accountants and engineers, so the findings may not apply to shop-floor plightees or clerical staff (Sargent, 1990). The age group, gender, job scope and other significant factors might be overlooked in conducting the research. Besides, salary might be one of the motivation factors too, not just to settle dissatisfaction. star great attempt to show the connection between different models of motivation and managerial practice was made byDouglas McGregor in his book, The Human Side of Enterprise (1960). He wrote in his book that Man is a abstracted animal as soon as one of his needs is satisfied, anoth er appear in its place. McGregor was greatly impacted by Maslow, building on Maslows hierarchy of needs framework, he came up with two sets of assumptions nigh people surmisal X and opening Y. He strongly believed that effective leadership depends on management assumptions about the nature of management and people in general (Sargent, 1990) possible action X try on that the average mankind is naturally lazy, dislike work of any kind and will avoid it whenever possible. wholeness has no ambition and prefers to be led rather than lead and take responsibility. One can be self-centred and unconcerned to the needs of the organization. Moreover, he is unripe and not particularly bright or judicious. Worst, he is resistant to change. They need a mixture of carrot and stick to perform (Lorenzana, 1993) (Refer to appendix 3). supposition Y, on the other hand, defend that the average mankind is not laid-back, nor is he without urge to assume responsibility. He can be self-motivated, a nd find self-satisfaction in work if the right kind of environment is provided by managers. They are people not by nature static or resistant to organizational needs (Lorenzana, 1993). One weakness of surmisal X is that it exercises a form of social control characterized by strict regard to the authority of the organization, and maintenance and enforcement of control through the employ of oppressive dealings including intimation and mockery of employees.Theory X and Theory Y could hardly be applied as perfect models in the real world. It cannot be accepted too literally due to the dichotomy of unrealistic extremes (Stevens, 2009). Back to where I started from, a more philosophical direction can be used to approach motivation as some theorists see motivation as a much more positive experience. Motivation itself can form behaviours that lead to increases in future motivation. Maslows concept of self-actualization could be applied within this framework (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009 ). many a(prenominal) theorists build on one another theory in aspiration to come up with a more comprehensive approach to motivation, as well as through the research of psychology and behaviour of one. Though there might be limitations to each theory, they are still vastly used by the modern organization, usually a mixed choices of theories. unquestionable improvements in the effectiveness should be seen as the social science will continue to contribute to the development ofmotivation.Physiological NeedsPhysiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When these are not satisfied we may tactile property sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings motivate us to mitigate them as soon as possible to draw homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may think about other things.Safety NeedsSafety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world. These needs are broadly psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and family. However, if a family is dysfunctional, family members cannot move to the next level because they have safety concerns. come and belong toingness have to hold get through until they are no longer in fear. Many in our society cry out for faithfulness and order because they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighbourhood. Unfortunately many people, particularly those in the intragroup cities, are stuck at this level.Need to BelongLove and sense of be are next on the ladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups clubs, work groups, religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others. Performers appreciate applause. We need to be needed. We see numerous examples in advertising where our need for group belonging is tied to consumption of a particular product. honor Needs in that respect are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem which results from competence o r program line of a task. Second, theres the attention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to the sense of belonging level however, abstracted admiration has to do with the need for power. People, who have all of their lower needs satisfied, often drive veryexpensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem.Self-ActualizationThe need for self-actualisations is the desire to compel more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace, aesthetic experiences, self-fulfilment, and juncture with God etc. It is usually middle-class to upper-class students who take up environmental causes, go off to a monastery, etc. (Maslow, 1970)Appendix 2There are two classes of factors that influence employee motivation native factors and the extrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors were also called the motivator factors and were tie in to job satisfact ion. The extrinsic factors were called hygiene factors and were related to job dissatisfaction. Motivators (intrinsic factors) led to job satisfaction because of a need for growth and self actualization, and hygiene (extrinsic) factors led to job dissatisfaction because of a need to avoid unpleasantness. The negative or positive KITA or kick in the ass approach to employee motivation yields short- range results, but seldom generates any actual motivation.In fact, to call it an approach to motivation is to clearly misunderstand motivation as Herzberg understood it. KITA yields movement the avoidance of pain not motivation. Positive KITA, in the form of raises and incentives reduces time spend at work, inflates wages and benefits, and overemphasizes human relations. K-I-T-A techniques fail to tutor self-generating motivation in workers. Job content factors, such as achievement and responsibility, are motivators, while job environment factors are hygiene or KITA factors. Motivators are the key to satisfaction. (F. Herzberg, Management Review, 1971, pp. 2-5)Appendix 3Theory XTheory Xs inflexible approach is grounded in coercion, implicit threats and intimation, close supervision, and rigid command and control. Such anapproach typically results in hostility, purposely low output, and hard-line union demands. In contrast, a softer approach might produce an ever-increasing postulate for more rewards and ever decreasing work output.ReferencesAlexender, P.A, Winne, P.H 2006, enchiridion of Educational psychological science (2nd ed.), Lawrance Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Mahwah freshly Jersey, USA Carducci, B.J 2009, The Psychology of Personality, 2nd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, UK Efklides, A, Kuhl, J & Sorrentino, R.M 2001, Trends and Prospects in Motivation Research, Kluwer pedantic Publishers, The Netherlands Ewan, R.B 2003, An Introduction to Theories of Personality, 6th ed., Lawrance Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Mahwah New Jersey, USA Hollway, W 2001, Work Psycholog y and Organizational Behaviour Managing the man-to-man at Work, SAGE Publications Ltd, London Lorenzana, C.C 1993, Management Theory And Practice, Rex Printing Company, Inc., Florentino St. Quezon City, Philippines Maslow, A.H 1970, Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York Maslow, A.H 1943, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review, Vol.50 Motivation., Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009. 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